Pan-European card and digital wallet to complete European retail payments market; The European Central Bank (ECB) welcomes the decision by 16 European banks to launch the European Payments Initiative. This initiative aims to create a unified payment solution for consumers and merchants across Europe, encompassing a payment card and a digital wallet and covering in-store, online and person-to-person payments as well as cash withdrawals A group of more than 30 European banks and acquirers planning to build a unified payment system for merchants and consumers across Europe is seeking technical partners to develop the system's central infrastructure. The European Payments Initiative (EPI) aims to build a solution that will become a new standard in payments for European consumers. Die European Payments Initiative ist ein Zusammenschluss von europäischen Zahlungsdienstleistern und Banken aus sieben Ländern mit Sitz in Brüssel. Ziel ist die Etablierung einheitlicher europäischer Zahlungsverfahren für Kunden und Händler, die mit einer eigenen Infrastruktur in direkte Konkurrenz zu den großen US-amerikanischen Unternehmen VISA und MasterCard treten sollen. Die Initiative ist eng mit dem Projekt Digitale Kreditwirtschaft der Deutschen Kreditwirtschaft.
The European Payments Initiative (EPI), previously known as the Pan-European Payments System Initiative (PEPSI), is a European Central Bank -backed payment-integration initiative aiming to create a pan-European payment system and interbank network to rival Mastercard and Visa, and eventually replace national European payment schemes such as France's Carte Bancaire and Germany's Girocard Die Europäische Payment Initiative ist ein Zusammenschluss von 20 europäischen Banken, die eine gemeinsame europäische Bezahllösung schaffen wollen. Damit treten sie gemeinsam gegen Giganten wie Apple Pay, Paypal oder Alipay an Mit der European Payment Initiative geht auf bundesdeutscher Ebene das Projekt #DK (Digitale Kreditwirtschaft) einher. Ziel dieses Payment-Projekts ist es, Verbrauchern und Händlern sowohl im stationären Handel als auch im E-Commerce durch eine Bündelung der bestehenden Verfahren Vorteile in der Handhabung und eine höhere Wiedererkennbarkeit zu bieten. Die in #DK entwickelten Ansätze zahlen voll auf die EPI-Zielsetzungen ein, denn die Zusammenführung der derzeit bestehenden. Eigentlich schien alles vorbereitet für den Launch der European Payments Initiative - also für den politisch gewünschten Großangriff von 16 europäischen Banken (darunter die Deutsche Bank, die Commerzbank, die DZ Bank und die Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe) auf Mastercard und Visa. Die Vorbereitungen galten als abgeschlossen, die Finanzierung als gesichert, im belgischen Handelsregister tauchte am 7. Oktober sogar schon die vorläufige Projektgesellschaft auf. Name: EPI. SRTP scheme - a major advance for European payments. The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author and should not be attributed to the European Payments Council. The Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA) Request-to-Pay (SRTP) scheme covers a wide range of use cases and business models, applicable in many sectors
Alternative zu US-Anbietern EZB unterstützt Initiative für neues Zahlungssystem in Europa 02. Juli 2020 Die sogenannte European Payment Initiative soll alle Euro-Länder und letztendlich die.. Today, a group of 16 major European banks from five countries (Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain) paved the way for the future launch of the European Payments Initiative (EPI). The ambition of EPI is to create a unified pan-European payment solution leveraging Instan EPI is currently assessing how the necessary central infrastructure could be obtained, or built, and how best it should be operated, to sustain all the necessary solution functions and needs, as well as the solution needs of the technical entity, in relation to the payment products EPI intends to deploy. In particular, determining the financial aspects of the different options for the setup, and the run of the central infrastructure is critical for allowing proper decisions and choices European Payments Initiative is an initiative launched by banks to assess potential ways of creating a pan-European payment solution leveraging . SEPA Instant Credit Transfer and addressing the largest use cases for consumers and merchants. This solution should be attractive and competitive, with the goal of making it a new standard for payments in Europe Although the European Payments Initiative (EPI) is not mentioned by name, this initiative by 16 European banks fits in seamlessly. EPI has therefore taken off after considerable pressure from the Commission and the EU. Back-end technology push. EPI builds on the success of the SCT Inst infrastructure and banking APIs. Instant payments technology has not yet been introduced in all corners of.
Twenty European banks are reported to be working on setting up a pan-European payment system in order to challenge the perceived dominance of Visa and Mastercard as well as technology companies such as Google, Apple, AliPay and WeChat Pay. At the end of 2018, there was a total of 6,088 banks operating in the European Union 28 First, TIPS is based on the SEPA Instant Credit Transfer (SCT Inst) - a scheme for pan-European instant payments, expected to be used by a large number of payment service providers across Europe. Second, TIPS was developed as an extension of TARGET2, which already has an extensive network of participants across Europe. How does it work About: The European Payments Initiative (EPI) aims to create a unified pan-European payment solution. Its founding members are so far: Spanish Banking Consortium (SOCIEDAD DE BANCOS ESPAÑOLES PARA COLABORACIÓN EN PAGOS): Press contacts: Press contact BBVA: Carmen Maria Alvarez Diez: +34 620915706 - Email: m.alvarez@bbva,com. Press contact BNP Paribas: Servane Costrel de Corainville: +33 6.
Indeed, the European Payments Initiative (EPI) is intended, amongst other things, to leverage instant payments. The initiative, launched by 16 European banks, aims to offer a new pan-European payment solution for consumers and merchants The European payments initiative - EPI would be a critical and decisive step in that direction. Valdis Dombrovskis, Executive Vice-President for an Economy that Works for People said: The European payments initiative fits into our ambition that European consumers and businesses should have access to fast, efficient and competitive payment solutions. I hope banks from other countries.
Major banks commence implementation phase of European Payment Initiative. July 2, 2020 4:07 pm UTC, Maria Nikolova. The aim of EPI is to create a unified pan-European payment solution, offering a card for consumers and merchants across Europe, a digital wallet and P2P payments. Today, a group of 16 major European banks from Belgium, France. Martina Weimert ist seit Dezember CEO der European Payment Initiative Interim Company, einer Initiative von 20 Banken und zwei Acquirern zur Etablierung eines paneuropäischen Payment- und Karten-Schemes. Zuvor leitete sie vier Jahre lang von Paris aus die Payment-Beratung von Oliver Wyman. Weimert verfügt über eine zwei Jahrzehnte lange Erfahrung in der Payment-, Banking- und Fintech. Participants must have made the necessary implementations to connect to T2 and can begin to exchange test messages with the new T2 service. 1 Dec 2021: Functional test begin. Participants can begin end-to end interaction, interoperability, community and business day tests. 21 Nov 2022: T2 service goes live. These new milestones will allow for an extended testing period with the new T2 service. The European Payments Initiative. On 2 July 2020, a group of 16 major European banks from five Member States (Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain) announced the start of the implementation phase of a new unified payment scheme and solution called the European Payments Initiative. The EPI is aiming to enter the operational stage in 2022. What is the EPI and what does it hope to.
The Eurosystem therefore welcomes the strategic initiative of a number of major European banks to create a true pan-European retail payment solution. The proposed solution would be based on the SEPA credit transfer instant (SCT Inst) scheme. And it could capitalise from day one on existing infrastructures, such as the Eurosystem's TIPS 16 major european banks launch EPI, European Payment Initiative, a pan-European payment solution. A significant step forward in strengthening the single mark.. The European Central Bank welcomes the decision by 16 European banks to launch the European Payments Initiative. This initiative aims to create a unified payment solution for consumers and merchants across Europe, encompassing a payment card and a digital wallet and covering in-store, online and person-to-person payments as well as cash withdrawals But solving these issues and creating a single, unified modern EU payment system is the goal of the European Payments Initiative (EPI). With support from the European Central Bank (ECB) and major.
EPI's ambition is to create a new payment solution that will become a new standard means of payment for European consumers and merchants for in-store and online transactions, cash withdrawals and peer-to-peer payments. EPI is expected to enter the operational stage in 2022. The ECB welcomes this initiative to launch a new European payment solution. EPI's founders will incorporate an. UMT AG joins European initiative Berlin Group NextGenPSD2 for the standardization of interfaces in payment transactions UMT United Mobility Technology AG (UMT) has joined the European initiative Berlin Group NextGenPSD2 as part of the Advisory Group. This step underlines UMT's claim to technological and creative leadership within the framework of the EU payment directive PSD2. This is the. In Europe, Open Banking is promoted by the European Commission as part of a digital agenda to open up services, provide choice, and foster competition and innovation in the market. PSD2 Access to Account (XS2A) is a mandatory regulatory component, under which all institutions that offer payment accounts, must offer access to regulated third party providers Overview. The SEPA (Single Euro Payments Area) is a self-regulatory initiative by the European banking sector represented in the European Payments Council, which defines the harmonization of payment products, infrastructures and technical standards (Rulebooks for credit transfer/direct debit, BIC, IBAN, ISO 20022 XML message format, EMV chip cards/terminals)
Since the initiative encourages innovation in the online payment mode and offers better payments services to end customers, PSD2 is gaining momentum in other geographies without the presence of any mandatory regulations. External Document 2018 Infosys Limited External Document 2018 Infosys Limited Overview In October 2015, the European Parliament agreed to the European Commission's proposal. The new system, called 'European Payments Initiative,' or EPI, is expected to become operative in 2022 and would challenge the market dominance of U.S.-based payment firms Mastercard and Visa The virtual conference Future of Payments in Europe - the centrepiece of our virtual event series -discussed different perspectives on the latest developments in European payments, most importantly the Retail Payments Strategy of the European Commission, the European Payments Initiative and the potential role of a digital euro in the payments landscape The European Central Bank (ECB) welcomes the decision by 16 European banks to launch the European Payments Initiative. This initiative aims to create a unified payment solution for consumers and merchants across Europe, encompassing a payment card and a digital wallet and covering in-store, online and person-to-person payments as well as cash withdrawals The agreement reached today by 16 major Eurozone banks from Belgium, France, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands to launch the European Payments Initiative (EPI) aims to create a unified payment solution for consumers and merchants across Europe, encompassing a payment card and a digital wallet and covering in-store, online and person-to-person payments as well as cash [
This latest development has also further contributed to the build-up of pan-European instant payment reach: critical mass has now been reached in 10 countries across the continent, including Austria, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg and Spain. RT1 currently counts 74 participants across Europe, which extend reach to 2,570 Addressable Payment Service. EIB issues its first ever digital bond on a public blockchain. The EUR 100m 2-year bond, placed with key market investors, represents the market's first multi‑dealer led, primary issuance of digitally native tokens using public blockchain technology. Similar to the EIB's role in green bonds or risk free rates, the new digital bond. SEPA Instant Payment ist im bargeldlosen Zahlungsverkehr eine Zahlungsart, bei der im Online-Banking Zahlungsvorgänge vom Zahlungspflichtigen bis zur Gutschrift beim Zahlungsempfänger maximal 10 Sekunden benötigen. Voraussetzung. Voraussetzung für SEPA-Echtzeitüberweisungen ist, dass die Senderbank das Senden anbietet und dass die Empfänger-Bank das Empfangen anbietet. Beides ist. The Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) is funded jointly by the European Union We also run regular workshops where participants can learn in detail what costs are eligible and how to avoid errors, and ask detailed questions on IMI's rules and procedures. In addition, our internal procedures and checklists are designed to ensure that when a cost claim is received from a project, errors. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has revised its guidance on first-in-human clinical trials to further help stakeholders identify and mitigate risks for trial participants. First-in-human trials are a key step in medicines development, where a medicine already tested in vitro , in animals or in other preclinical studies is administered to people for the first time
interfaces in payment transactions UMT United Mobility Technology AG (UMT) has joined the European initiative Berlin Group NextGenPSD2 as part of the Advisory Group. This step underlines UMT's claim to technological and creative leadership within the framework of the EU payment directive PSD2. This is the second EU-wide payment services directive that came into force on 13 January 2018 and. EBA responses to issues XIV to XX raised by participants of the EBA Working Group on APIs under PSD2 Published on 26 July 2019 Disclaimer: The information contained in the table below is of an informational nature and has no binding force in law. Only the Court of Justice of the European Union can provide definitive interpretations of EU legislation. The information may factually reflect a. European Commission, Justice and citizens' rights, This event will cover how the European Citizens' Initiative (ECI) works and how people can get involved - and co-create a participatory space to connect, exchange and understand the support network available to initiative organisers. It will take place online and focus on a Swedish audience Another Eurosystem market infrastructure initiative is the upcoming introduction of central liquidity management within the new TARGET services, which will make the use of central bank money even more efficient for market participants. By enhancing a stable infrastructure and enabling pan-European harmonisation in the settlement of payments and securities, we supply a core component for the.
The Exchange Council welcomed the initiative as it would bring transparent and well established processes for public energy procurement. The Exchange Council also discussed the new UK Emissions Trading scheme, which replaces the former participation of the United Kingdom in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme. With its strong expertise. Among cohort participants who received MTX within a year from symptom onset, the proportions with a score of ≥6/10 were 96.8% (Leiden), 90.5% (Leeds), and 87.2% (Toronto). Eligibility for testing with the new criteria 31.05.2021 - 09.06.2021 @ All Day - Description The HERCULES Specialized Course (HSC) is an extensive training that is being organized since 2006, taking place after the main HERCULES School, and combining both theoretical and practical sessions. This year's edition will be organized online from 31st May to 9th June 2021 by CERIC-ERIC, in the framework of the H2020 projects ACCELERATE and. Youth Employment Initiative PE 603.247 1 Youth Employment Initiative European Implementation Assessment In-depth analysis On 9 March 2017, the European Parliament's Committee on Employment and Social Affairs received authorisation to draw up an own-initiative implementation report on the Youth Employment Initiative - rapporteur: Romana Tomc (EPP, Slovenia), while referring to an agreement.
Initiative participants. OSAi is spearheaded by Orange, one of the world's leading telecommunication operators, which has secured the initial participants in the initiative.These include DINSIC, the IT and Digital Agency of the French Government, La Poste, the French postal service company, Worldline the European leader in payment and transaction services, Smile, a leading European integrator. European Heart Journal, Volume 42, Issue 15, blood pressure medication, dietary preferences, alcohol consumption, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) stage, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, resting heart rate, vital exhaustion score, occupation, cohabitation, marital status, and household income. 1 The.
This conference is open to any MS scientist worldwide, with a focus on mass spectrometrists from Europe, to attend this joint French/German initiative. We hope that other national MS societies from Europe will continue this format in the future, to foster a regular European MS exchange. This meeting will be held from Sunday evening, 11 March. DGAP-News: UMT United Mobility Technology AG / Key word: Miscellaneous UMT AG joins European initiative 'Berlin Group NextGenPSD2' for the standardization of interfaces in payment... | April 4, 202
Produce guidelines for participants in the Open Banking ecosystem; Set out the process for managing disputes and complaints ; Second Payment Services Directive (PSD2) The second Payment Services Directive is a new piece of European legislation which came into force on 13 January 2018. It enables regulated third party providers, with a customer's consent, to access a customer's bank account. Participants all over the world. These already joined us! Are you the next one? Your organization shall be part of our growing global network. Please feel free to contact us at info@openchargealliance.com. The combined expertise of your organization and the other participants will help to further enhance the open standard. become a participant . ). . . Quick Access. Event calendar.
Participants Working together to stem the tide of conflict diamonds worldwide. Home; What is the KP ; Participants; The Kimberley Process (KP) is open to all countries that are willing and able to implement its requirements. The KP has 56 participants, representing 82 countries, with the European Union and its 27 Member States counting as a single participant, represented by the European. This initiative will bring together every part of our company, combining existing and new resources from LinkedIn, GitHub, and Microsoft. It will be grounded in three areas of activity: (1) The use of data to identify in-demand jobs and the skills needed to fill them; (2) Free access to learning paths and content to help people develop the skills these positions require; (3) Low-cost. ICANN was formed in 1998 as a not-for-profit public-benefit corporation and a community with participants from all over the world. Information Partners. Euronews. Europe's leading international news channel launched in France in 1993. Its mission is to empower people to form their own opinion. Euronews now reaches 400 million homes across 160 countries. With a team of 500 journalists of more. Welcome to GRI. Our mission is to enable organizations to be transparent and take responsibility for their impacts, enabled through the world's most widely used standards for sustainability reporting - the GRI Standards
The cross-industry self-regulatory initiative was developed by leading European bodies to introduce pan-European standards to enhance transparency and user control over data used for interest based advertising. This type of advertising increasingly helps to support the cost of providing content free at the point of access to consumers, and a range of services and applications that internet. 20 April, 2021 09h00 - 10h00 CEST / 10h00 - 11h00 EAT. Followed by an online networking session until 13h00 CEST / 14h00 EAT. Co-organised by European Entrepreneurs CEA-PME & the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry (Ethiopia), this panel will present African affordable payment solutions for off-grid renewable energy and invite European entrepreneurs to partner for more sustainable. Over the past three decades, a significant number of centers for religion and public life have emerged in European universities. During the third congress of the European Academy of Religion on March 4 2019, the leaders of some of these centers launched the network of European Centers on Religion and Politics.. This new initiative has two major goals The Center for Education and Lifelong Learning of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki welcomes you to the Online Summer School Current developments on financial crime, corruption and money laundering: European and international perspectives, a 48.9-hour online live via synchronous video conferencing, so that the participants will have the chance to interact and participate in the. This is a joint initiative of the European Union and the Metropolitan Governance Project to provide timely relief. A symbolic act but still necessary for the disadvantaged population of El Salvador, with this basic food basket that we want to distribute among the citizens. This is the most affected area in El Salvador, on health and economic impact due to Covid-19. World Press Freedom Day: why.
Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and. ESOMAR is the global voice of the data, research and insights community. A truly global association, providing ethical and professional guidance and advocating on behalf of our global membership community, since 1947. ESOMAR is a not-for-profit organisation that promotes the value of market, opinion and social research and data analytics the Enabling E-commerce public-private dialogue initiative. The evolving e-payments system Individuals and businesses worldwide need to make and receive payments on a daily basis. E-payment services are how transactions involving different types of payment instruments are processed and through which transfers of funds are managed. While the term e-payments encompasses a broad range of. BPCI Participants Table 1. Table 1. Baseline Hospital and Market Characteristics. We obtained from CMMI publicly available lists of participating hospitals in the BPCI initiative, their start date.
The Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) is a global not-for-profit organisation and the largest cotton sustainability programme in the world. BCI exists to make global cotton production better for the people who produce it, better for the environment it grows in and better for the sector's future. — — News and Blog. Israel Cotton Production and Marketing Board Becomes BCI Strategic Partner. The legislative framework in which European ACH's are operating, with laws and guidelines from EC and ECB, makes reference to Interoperability in several places. For the benefit of a clear understanding of Interoperability by industry participants, both providers and users of clearing services, EACHA shares its understanding of Interoperability in this short document. Download EACHA's view on.
To re-open borders without quarantine and restart aviation governments need to be confident that they are effectively mitigating the risk of importing COVID-19. This means having accurate information on passengers' COVID-19 health status. To address this challenge IATA is launching the IATA Travel Pass This article focuses on some of the security controls for Open Banking from various sources, including Australia's Consumer Data Right (CDR) law, 1 Singapore's Finance-as-a-Service: API Playbook, 2 Hong Kong's Open API Framework, 3 the U.K.'s Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) Open Banking guidelines, 4 and the European Union's Payment Services Directive 2 (PSD2).
For the 18th year, the European Business Ethics Forum (EBEF) will bring together those who are responsible for the ethics, compliance or business conduct programmes within their organisations. Participants share with their peers practical information and experiences relating to current best practices and explore together some of the problems that are raised in doing business ethically around. Euroclear leads joint blockchain initiative European CP market. The proposed solution will provide one consolidated hub for the issuing of European commercial paper with delivery vs payment (DvP) settlement. By Richard Schwartz June 19, 2019 3:07 PM GMT. European Investment Bank (EIB), Euroclear, Banco Santander, and EY have together developed an end-to-end blockchain solution for the issuance.
The Business Angels FrankfurtRheinMain and HTGF support the Academy's participants with their excellent networks and their expertise as investors. Deutsche Bahn Digital Ventures and Visa support the founders with their specialist knowledge derived from their core business activities: the promotion of new business models focused on mobility and digital payment solutions respectively. This is. The European Council and the Council of the EU are served by a single administration, the General Secretariat of the Council (GSC) a. Payment tokens.. 9 b. Utility tokens..... 11 c. Asset tokens.. 11 2. Are Crypto-assets covered by existing regulation, and if not, should they?.. 12 a. Payment Tokens..... 13 b. Utility tokens..... 14 c. Asset tokens.. 14 d. Sandboxes and innovation hubs.. 16 Annex 1 - Mapping of seurities authorities' positions and initiatives on IOs and digital urrenies in the EU. The trans-Atlantic slave trade was the largest long-distance forced movement of people in recorded history. From the sixteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, over twelve million (some estimates run as high as fifteen million) African men, women, and children were enslaved, transported to the Americas, and bought and sold primarily by European and Euro-American slaveholders as chattel. The European Commission is providing co-funding to JobsPlus for participants under 25 years. JobsPlus is jointly backed by the Youth Employment Initiative (YEI) and the European Social Fund (ESF) and Department of Social Protection on an equal funding basis. If you are a Jobseeker and you want to check your eligibility for JobsPlus please fill out the form below. COVID-19 Information: If you.
Design, Setting, and Participants This population-based cohort study involved participants (n = 451 743 of the full cohort) in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), an ongoing, large multinational cohort of people from 10 European countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom), with. While there exist European initiatives such as the Cyber Information and Intelligence-Sharing Initiative as well as the cost and benefits of developing a coherent cyber resilience testing framework for significant market participants and infrastructures within the whole EU financial sector. In their conclusions, the ESAs proposed measures in four major fields of action: requirements on ICT. European Social Fund 2014 to 2020 Programme: Questions and Answers on COVID-19 Response Updated 27 May 2021 We encourage you to seek to deliver as much support as possible to participants.
The European Solidarity Corps is the new initiative from the European Union to enable young people aged 18 to 30 to engage in solidarity-related projects around Europe. This could be as a volunteer, trainee or even as a paid employee working on a solidarity-themed project. In this release you can The New York Fed provides a wide range of payment services for financial institutions and the U.S. government. The New York Fed offers the Central Banking Seminar and several specialized courses for central bankers and financial supervisors. The New York Fed has been working with tri-party repo market participants to make changes to improve the resiliency of the market to financial stress. In that regard, the possibilities of designing new electoral laws for the elections of the European Parliament will be discussed in detail as well as the right of initiative as the cornerstone of the current ordinary legislative procedure. Then, the course will elaborate further on how the EU could effectively safeguard the Rule of Law in its Member States, especially in cases of backslidings.
Participants will assess the market's demand for their product and/or service and make a business plan to determine the efficiency of their project and whether it can meet the requirements to create employment. The last group this spring is starting and new participants will not be accepted until this autumn. The Initiative program will be open for applications in August 2021. Requirements. Participants will define areas of collaboration and identify gaps between existing technical specifications in order to increase compatibility among different technologies, such as: How do SRC, FIDO, and Payment Request relate? The Payment Services Directive 2 (PSD2) regulations in Europe are scheduled to take effect in September 2019. What is the role of EMVCo, W3C, and FIDO technologies, and. Visitor address: European Actuarial Academy Hohenstaufenring 47 - 51 50674 Cologne Phone: +49 221 912554-34 Responsible antibiotic use means limiting use as much as possible. As such, pharmaceutical companies are reluctant to invest in a product that is intended to stay on the shelf. The DRIVE-AB project developed a set of recommendations for policy makers on how to incentivise the development of new antibiotics. They estimated the real worth of antibiotics to society, settled on the best reward. The motivations for this important initiative, which cover both connectivity and more sustainable growth for China are set out in section 4. China's global infrastructure investment strategy, focusing on connectivity for the BRI, is discussed in section 5. Debt in China as a major policy issue was discussed in Chapter 1 of OECD, 2018a. While that chapter focused on bank and shadow bank debt.